Technotes

The information in this Technote is still relevant up to and including Mac OS 7.6 with QuickDraw GX 1.1.5. Beginning with the release of Mac OS 8.0, however, Apple plans to deliver a system which incorporates QuickDraw GX graphics and typography only. QuickDraw GX printer drivers and GX printing extensions will not be supported in Mac OS 8.0 or in future Mac OS releases. Apple's goal is to simplify the user experience of printing by unifying the Macintosh graphic and printing architectures and standardizing on the classic Printing Manager.

This Note is intended for Macintosh QuickDraw GX developers who want to approximate ellipses and hyperbolas with paths. These, with parabolas (gxCurves), form the familty of curves called conics.

Contents

• About the GX Libraries
  
• Using ConicLibrary.c
  
• The Theory behind ConicLibrary.c
  
• Summary
  

The GX Libraries fill this gap by providing services built on top of the rest of QuickDraw GX in source form. This Technote and others document these services. Since GX libraries are provided as source, it is reasonable for developers to modify them to meet their specific needs. Care was taken for the libraries not to depend on the implementation details of QuickDraw GX so that future versions should not invalidate them, in original or modified form.

The libraries are likely to evolve to take advantage of improved algorithms, as well as new Macintosh or QuickDraw GX services. If you modify one for your application's specific needs, it's worth occasionally reviewing the GX library provided by Apple to stay synchronized with any improvements.

What is in ConicLibrary.c?

Using ConicLibrary.c

A Conic is a gxCurve, Almost

struct conic {
	gxPoint a;
	gxPoint b;
	gxPoint c;
	Fixed lambda;
};

In Figure 1, as lambda decreases, the curve approaches the line from point a to point c. All of these curves are elliptical arcs. When lambda hits zero, the curve has become a line from point a to point c.

As lambda increases, the curve approaches point b. These curves are hyperbolas. Once lambda gets big enough, the curve approximates two line segments: one from point a to point b, and another from point b to point c.

Figure 1: A Quadratic Rational Spline with Vertices (a,b,c)

One reasonable use of the ConicLibrary provides a graphics application with a means to change the amount of curvature defined by a quadratic Bézier, a segment of a gxPath. To increase the curvature, increase lambda.

Conic Functions

NewConic

gxShape NewConic(const conic *curve);

GXSetShapeCurveError(GXGetDefaultShape(gxPathType), errorValue);
 

DrawConic

void DrawConic(const conic *curve, gxShapeFill fill);

SetConic

void SetConic(gxShape target, const conic *curve);

Note:

It is not necessary to understand lambda in mathematical terms. Its usefulness for ConicLibrary.c can be summarized by the following: increasing lambda increases curvature, while decreasing lambda decreases the curvature.

Note:

These functions are orthogonal to other GX Graphics primitives, such as points, lines, polygons and paths, and other libraries, such as cubics, arcs, ovals and rounded rectangles. You can rely on functions of the form NewX, SetX and DrawX for any geometry supported by QuickDraw GX.

struct fPoint {
	float x;
	float y;
};

struct fCurve {
	fPoint first;
	fPoint control;
	fPoint last;
};

struct fConic {
	fPoint a;
	fPoint b;
	fPoint c;
	float lambda;
};

Note:

My apologies to the mathematicians of the world for bastardizing concepts, to the C programmers of the world for using C++, and to the GX Engineers for using not using Fixed.

circle:		x2 + y2 = 0
parabola: 	x = y2
hyperbola:	x2 -  y2 = 1
ellipse:	x2/a + y2/b = 0

conic:	ax2 + bx + cy2 + dy + exy + f = 0

Describing a Curve

There's another way to describe a parabola: as a parametric equation. A parametric equation (at least as they are going to be described here) describes x and y in terms of two equations as a third parameter, t, varies from zero to one. The equation for a second order parametric equation is:

	x = at2 + bt + c

	y = dt2 + et + f

If the curve described by these equations is limited by t starting at zero and ending at one, then the curve begins at (c, f) and ends at (a + b + c, d + e + f). Plugging in 0.5 for t yields the curve's midpoint; i.e., x = a/4 + b/2 + c. It is convenient to be able to define a curve by where it starts and ends; all that's missing is some additional information that describes how it curves. A gxCurve describes a parabolic segment in terms of three control points, named first, control and last. We can describe those points in terms of their parametric parameters:

first = c

control = b/2 + c

last = a + b + c

mid = a/4 + b/2 + c = c/4 + b/4 + c/2+ (a + b + c)/4 = first/4 +control/2 +
last/4

a = first - 2 * control + last

b = control * 2 - first * 2

c = first

	void CurveXY(const fCurve& cu, float& x, float& y, const float t)
	{
		x = (cu.first.x - 2 * cu.control.x + cu.last.x) * t * t +
			2 * (cu.control.x - cu.first.x) * t + cu.first.x;
		y = (cu.first.y - 2 * cu.control.y + cu.last.y) * t * t +
			2 * (cu.control.y - cu.first.y) * t + cu.first.y;
	}

	void CurveXY(const fCurve& cu, float& x, float& y, const float t)
	{
		x = cu.first.x  * ( 1 - t) * 
		    (1 - t) + 2 * cu.control.x * t * (1 - t) + cu.last.x * t * t;
		y = cu.first.y  * ( 1 - t) * 
		    (1 - t) + 2 * cu.control.y * t * (1 - t) + cu.last.y * t * t;
	}

	if ( t == 0.5) {	// optimize !
		x  = cu.first.x/4 + cu.control.x/2 + cu.last.x/4;
		y  = cu.first.y/4 + cu.control.y/2 + cu.last.y/4;
	}

In Technote 1051 - Understanding Conic Splines, we learn that the parametric form for conics can be represented by sending the parametric equation for a quadratric Bézier through a perspective transformation:

void FindConicXY(const fConic& con, float& x, float& y, const float t)
{
	x =	(con.a.x  * ( 1 - t) * (1 - t) + 
	     2 * con.lambda * con.b.x * t * (1 - t) + con.c.x * t * t) /
		(1 + 2 * (con.lambda -1) * t * (1 - t));
		
	y = (con.a.y  * ( 1 - t) * (1 - t) + 
	     2 * lambda * con.b.y * t * (1 - t) + con.c.y * t * t) /
		(1 + 2 * (con.lambda -1) * t * (1 - t));
}

The mid-point for any conic simplifies to:

	if ( t == 0.5) {	// optimize !
		x = (con.a.x/2 + con.lambda * con.b.x + con.c.x/2) / (con.lambda + 1);
		y = (con.a.y/2 + con.lambda * con.b.y + con.c.y/2) / (con.lambda + 1);
	}

	if (t == 0.5 && con.lambda == 1) {	// further optimize !
		x = con.a.x/4 + con.b.x/2 + con.c.x/4;
		y = con.a.y/4 + con.b.y/2 + con.c.y/4;
	}

In summary, what do we know?

• A second order parametric equation describes a parabolic segment.

• By adding a weighted divisor, conics can also be described by a parametric equation.

• If the weight in the conic equation is set to 1, the result is a parabolic segment.

Computing Lambda

a) Construct a pair of lines perpendicular to the tangents at the arc's ends.

b) Define the circle's center to be the intersection of these lines.

c) Rotate one of these lines to the mid-angle to define the arc's mid-point.

d) Use the arc's mid-point to define the arc's lambda value.

So you can try this on your own,we'll code this as legitimate fixed-point code.

#include 
#include 
void FindCircularLambda(conic& arc)
{
// we need a value for lambda that makes the midPoint equi-distant from
// the circle center. First, we need to find where the hypothetical 
// center is. There are many ways to find the circle center; the way
// we'll choose has a GX flavor; we'll construct two radius lines and
// find where they intersect.

// start with the arc tangents from the end points to the control point
	gxLine first = {{arc.a.x, arc.a.y}, {arc.b.x, arc.b.y}};
	gxLine second = {{arc.c.x, arc.c.y}, {arc.b.x, arc.b.y}};
	gxShape line1 = GXNewLine(&first);
	gxShape line2 = GXNewLine(&second);

// these lines need to be rotated towards the circle's center. 
// knowing the arc direction helps.

	gxShape arcShape = GXNewCurve((gxCurve*) &arc);
	Boolean direction  = (GXGetShapeDirection(arcShape, 1) << 1) - 1; 
		// -1 counter, 1 clockwise
	GXDisposeShape(arcShape);

// if the curve is clockwise, rotate the first 90∞ clockwise and
// the second 90∞ counter-clockwise

	GXRotateShape(line1, direction * ff(90), arc.a.x, arc.a.y);
	GXRotateShape(line2, -direction * ff(90), arc.c.x, arc.c.y);

//  while these lines don't touch, make them bigger

	while (GXTouchesShape(line1, line2) == false) {
		GXScaleShape(line1, ff(2), ff(2), first.first.x, first.first.y);
		GXScaleShape(line2, ff(2), ff(2),second.first.x, second.first.y);
	}

// now that they touch, find their intersection (line2 becomes a
// gxPoint).

	GXIntersectShape(line2, line1);
	gxPoint center;
	GXGetPoint(line2, ¢er);

// we'll use the tangents to describe the span of the arc.

	gxPoint point1 = {arc.a.x - center.x, arc.a.y - center.y};
	gxPoint point2 = {arc.c.x - center.x, arc.c.y - center.y};
	gxPolar pole1, pole2;
	PointToPolar(&point1, &pole1);
	PointToPolar(&point2, &pole2);

// now we can rotate the first line so the starting point is at the
// arc's mid point

	GXRotateShape(line1, pole2.angle - pole1.angle >> 1, center.x,
					center.y);
	gxPoint mid;
	GXGetShapePoints(line1, 1, 1, &mid);

// given:mid.x = (arc.a.x/2 + lambda * arc.b.x + arc.c.x/2)/(lambda + 1)
// then: 2* mid.x * (lambda + 1) = arc.a.x + 2 * lambda * arc.b.x +
          arc.c.x
// then:lambda * 2 * (mid.x - arc.b.x) = arc.a.x + arc.c.x - 2  * mid.x
// then:
	Fixed lambda = FixedDivide(arc.a.x + arc.c.x - 2 * mid.x, 2 * (mid.x
          - arc.b.x));
	Fixed lambda2 = FixedDivide(arc.a.y + arc.c.y - 2 * mid.y, 2 *
          (mid.y - arc.b.y));
	Fixed error = lambda - lambda2;
	if (error < 0) error = - error;
	assert(error < 4);	// error should be small !
	arc.lambda = lambda + lambda2 >> 1;	// return average of two
}

	conic arc = {{0, 0}, {ff(125), ff(0)}, {ff(200), ff(100)}};
	FindCircularLambda(arc);
	DrawConic(&arc);

Reference Material

Another possible line of development is to adopt the general xy form equation for conics to use with GX. Foley and Van Damm's venerable Computer Graphics (2nd edition) from Addison-Wesley presents code for scan converting conics in their general form. This algorithm is further explored on the Internet at http://www.ece.uiuc.edu/~ece291/class-resources/gpe/conic.cc.html.

There are also a number of Internet resources to explore conics further. Listing them here will likely produce references that quickly grow out of date, but you might try linking to http://www.geom.umn.edu/apps/conics/ or http://www.bham.ac.uk/mathwise/syl3_2.htm.

• Technote 1051 - Understanding Conic Splines
• MacOS SDK CD, Development Kits (Disc 1): QuickDraw GX: Programming Stuff: GX Libraries:
• Inside Macintosh: QuickDraw GX Objects
• Inside Macintosh: QuickDraw GX Environment and Utilities